"s for various arguments that Black English displays African or creole roots because of the role that aspect plays in its grammar (e.g., DeBose and Faraclas 1993), the issue is in fact not yet sufficiently examined to stand as an accepted fact. by Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Elsevier, 2009 ( Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, ed. Today you can still hear in normal everyday conversations such African retentions as buckra 'white man,' tita 'elder sister,' dada 'mother or elder sister,' nyam 'eat/meat,' sa 'quickly,' benne 'sesame,' una 'you,' and da the verb 'to be.' Other Gullah Africanisms such as cooter 'turtle,' tote 'to carry,' okra 'plant food,' gumbo 'stew,' and goober 'peanut' are widely used in mainstream American English." From his research conducted in the late 1930s, Lorenzo Turner was the first linguist to document over 4000 Africanisms in the Gullah lexicon, many of them used as basket names (e.g. "The Gullah lexicon is largely English. (A Gullah proverb, from The Gullah People and Their African Heritage, 2005) "On possible to get straight wood from crooked timber." Mufwene, "North American Varieties of English as Byproducts of Population Contacts," in The Workings of Language, ed. Of all the vernaculars associated with African Americans, it is the one that diverges the most from (White) middle-class varieties in North America." Gullah could survive because it was relatively self-contained and isolated from the rest of the world." (Zoltán Kövecses, American English: An Introduction.- "The English variety spoken by descendants of Africans on the coast of South Carolina is known as Gullah and has been identified as a creole. , invented a form of English, West African Pidgin English, which incorporated many features from West African languages. These slaves, who spoke different African languages. It is a language that is probably most similar of all varieties of Black American English to the original creole English that was used in the New World and the West African Pidgin English of the earliest slaves. The Creole language of the large Black population in the region is called Gullah, spoken by about a quarter of a million people. However, some of the slaves stayed in the Charleston area, on what is called the Sea Islands. Many slaves first arrived here and then they were transported inland to the plantations. "The city that had become the center of the 'slave trade' was Charleston, South Carolina. However, like them, and despite its usefulness, vigor, and wide distribution, Pidgin tends to be regarded as debased English." (Tom McArthur, The Oxford Guide to World English. "Because many of its features are close to those of Creole in the Americas, some researchers have proposed a family of 'Atlantic creoles' that includes Pidgin in West Africa, Gullah in the U.S., and the various patois of the Caribbean. It originates in 16th-century contacts between West Africans and English sailors and traders, and is therefore as old as so-called ' Modern English.' Some WAPE speakers, especially in cities, do not speak any traditional African language: it is their sole means of expression. Among the local varieties are Aku in Gambia, Krio in Sierra Leone, Settler English and Pidgin English in Liberia, Pidgin (English) in Ghana and Nigeria, and Pidgin (English) or Kamtok in Cameroon. "WAPE is spoken in a geographical continuum from Gambia to Cameroon (including enclaves in French- and Portuguese-speaking countries) and in a vertical continuum with WAE at the top.
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